The status of research and utilisation on the subtidal kelp along the Chilean coast: A literature review
-
Abstract: The most important marine coastal ecosystem in the Chilean coast are kelp forests. This review is based on ecological studies regarding different aspects of subtidal kelp ecosystems along the Chilean coast. It highlights the most interesting findings in (1) biology of subtidal kelp in Chile, with particular reference to (2) habitats formed by kelp, and considered the successful examples and promising results in the (3) kelp as an industrial resource (Biotechnological approach of kelps and aquaculture). The impact caused by (4) El Niño-Southern Oscillation is discussed as an important climatic event that could help to forecast the future of the kelp ecosystem. In addition, this literature review outlines the knowledge gaps on subtidal kelp along the Southeast Pacific Coast of Chile, so that research can be strengthened in the future.
-
Key words:
- kelp /
- macroalgae /
- harvesting /
- commercial kelp /
- subtidal /
- SE Pacific Ocean
-
Figure 1. Map of Chile and country’s location in South American continent, showing geographic distribution of subtidalkelp species (grey bars), Lessonia trabeculata (Lt) and Macrocystis pyrifera (Mp). The sites marked on the map depict the main kelp harvest and process of raw material sites (dots) and the main distribution hubs (stars). Adapted from Vásquez (2008).
Figure 3. Density (mean±SE) of adult and juvenile kelp individuals of Macrocystis pyrifera and Lessonia trabeculata species before (1996), during (1997–1998), after (1999–2003) the ENSO event (Vega et al., 2005).
Table 1. Subtidal kelp species distribution in Chile
Species Area Distribution Resource Macrocystis pyrifera dominant species from Chiloé region to Magellan Strait shallow
subtidal
to 10 mDayton (1973);
Palacios and Mansilla (2003);
Plana et al. (2007);
Camus et al. (2021)Lessonia trabeculata dominant from border with Peru to Chiloé region shallow
subtidal
to ca. 30 mVásquez (2008) Note: ca., abbreviation for circa. Table 2. Natural compounds found in kelps, their production in Chile (in tonnes per year) and export values in 2013. Information source: IFOP and Aduanas de Chile (Jeraldo, 2014)
Compound Production/t Value/($US·t−1) Sodium alginate 265.4 14365.7 Alginic acid 25.4 12468.5 Potassium alginate 40.1 15071.9 Magnesium alginate 4 21850 Total alginates 334.9 63756.4 Other algae compounds 7.6 57291.8 Note: Total value of alginates is marked in bold. -
Abbott I A. 1996. Ethnobotany of seaweeds: clues to uses of seaweeds. Hydrobiologia, 326–327(1): 15–20 Adami M L, Gordillo S. 1999. Structure and dynamics of the biota associated with Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyta) from the Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego. Scientia Marina, 63(S1): 183–191. doi: 10.3989/scimar.1999.63s1183 Almanza V, Buschmann A H. 2013. The ecological importance of Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyta) forests towards a sustainable management and exploitation of chilean coastal benthic co-management areas. International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development, 12(4): 341–360. doi: 10.1504/IJESD.2013.056331 Arafeh-Dalmau N, Montaño-Moctezuma G, Martínez J A, et al. 2019. Extreme Marine Heatwaves alter kelp forest community near its equatorward distribution limit. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6: 499. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00499 Arafeh-Dalmau N, Schoeman D S, Montaño-Moctezuma G, et al. 2020. Marine heat waves threaten kelp forests. Science, 367(6478): 635 Augier H, Santimone M. 1978. Composition en azote total, en proteines et en acides amines proteiques de fertilisant foliaire «Goemar», à base d’algues marines. Botanica Marina (in Spanish), 21(6): 337–342 Ban N C. 2009. Minimum data requirements for designing a set of marine protected areas, using commonly available abiotic and biotic datasets. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18(7): 1829–1845. doi: 10.1007/s10531-008-9560-8 Bennett S, Wernberg T, Connell S D, et al. 2016. The ‘Great Southern Reef’: social, ecological and economic value of Australia’s neglected kelp forests. Marine and Freshwater Research, 67(1): 47–56. doi: 10.1071/MF15232 Blamey L K, Bolton J J. 2018. The economic value of South African kelp forests and temperate reefs: past, present and future. Journal of Marine Systems, 188: 172–181. doi: 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2017.06.003 Borras-Chavez R, Edwards M, Vásquez J A. 2012. Testing sustainable management in northern Chile: harvesting Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales). A case study. Journal of Applied Phycology, 24(6): 1655–1665. doi: 10.1007/s10811-012-9829-x Buschmann A H, Prescott S, Potin P, et al. 2014. The status of kelp exploitation and marine agronomy, with emphasis on Macrocystis pyrifera, in Chile. Advances in Botanical Research, 71: 161–188 Buschmann A H, Vásquez J A, Osorio P, et al. 2004. The effect of water movement, temperature and salinity on abundance and reproductive of patterns of Macrocystis spp. (Phaeophyta) at different latitudes in Chile. Marine Biology, 145(5): 849–862. doi: 10.1007/s00227-004-1393-8 Camus P A. 2001. Biogeografía marina de Chile continental. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural (in Spanish), 74(3): 587–617 Camus C, Hernández-González M D C, Buschmann A H. 2019. The seaweed resources of Chile over the period 2006–2016: moving from gatherers to cultivators. Botanica Marina, 62(3): 237–247. doi: 10.1515/bot-2018-0030 Camus C, Infante J, Buschmann A H. 2018. Overview of 3 year precommercial seafarming of Macrocystis pyrifera along the Chilean coast. Reviews in Aquaculture, 10(3): 543–559. doi: 10.1111/raq.12185 Camus P A, Ojeda F P. 1992. Scale-dependent variability of density estimates and morphometric relationships in subtidal stands of the kelp Lessonia trabeculata in northern and central Chile. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 90(2): 193–200 Camus C, Solas M, Martínez C, et al. 2021. Mates Matter: Gametophyte Kinship Recognition and Inbreeding in the Giant Kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). Journal Phycology, 57: 711–725. doi: 10.1111/jpy.13146 Cárdenas C A, Cañete J I, Oyarzún S, et al. 2007. Podding of juvenile king crabs Lithodes santolla (Molina, 1782) (Crustacea) in association with holdfasts of Macrocystis pyrifera (Linnaeus) C. Agardh, 1980. Investigaciones Marinas, 35(1): 105–110 Castilla J, Moreno C. 1982. Sea urchins and macrocystis pyrifera: experimental test of their ecological relations in southern Chile. In: International Echinoderm Conference, Tampa Bay. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 257–263 Chapman V J, Chapman D J. 1980. Sea vegetables (algae as food for man). In: Chapman V J, Chapman D J, eds. Seaweeds and Their Uses. Dordrecht: Springer, 62–97 Christie H, Jørgensen N M, Norderhaug K M, et al. 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 83(4): 687–699. doi: 10.1017/S0025315403007653h Correa T, Gutiérrez A, Flores R, et al. 2016. Production and economic assessment of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera cultivation for abalone feed in the south of Chile. Aquaculture Research, 47(3): 698–707. doi: 10.1111/are.12529 Coyer J A. 1984. The invertebrate assemblage associated with the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, at Santa Catalina Island, California: a general description with emphasis on amphipods, copepods, mysids, and shrimps. Fishery Bulletin, 82(1): 55–66 Crain C M, Kroeker K, Halpern B S. 2008. Interactive and cumulative effects of multiple human stressors in marine systems. Ecology Letters, 11(12): 1304–1315. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01253.x Cruces E, Huovinen P, Gómez I. 2013. Interactive effects of UV radiation and enhanced temperature on photosynthesis, phlorotannin induction and antioxidant activities of two sub-Antarctic brown algae. Marine Biology, 160(1): 1–13. doi: 10.1007/s00227-012-2049-8 Dayton P K. 1974. Kelp communities of southern South America. Antarctica, 9: 22–23 Dayton P K. 1985. The structure and regulation of some south american kelp communities. Ecological Monographs, 55(4): 447–468. doi: 10.2307/2937131 Dayton P K, Tegner M J, Parnell P E, et al. 1992. Temporal and spatial patterns of disturbance and recovery in a kelp forest community. Ecological Monographs, 62(3): 421–445. doi: 10.2307/2937118 De Fouw J, Van Der Heide T, Van Belzen J, et al. 2018. A facultative mutualistic feedback enhances the stability of tropical intertidal seagrass beds. Scientific Reports, 8(1): 12988. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-31060-x Duarte C, Navarro J M, Acuña K, et al. 2010. Feeding preferences of the sandhopper Orchestoidea tuberculata: the importance of algal traits. Hydrobiologia, 651(1): 291–303. doi: 10.1007/s10750-010-0309-5 Edwards M S. 2004. Estimating scale-dependency in disturbance impacts: El Niños and giant kelp forests in the northeast Pacific. Oecologia, 138(3): 436–447. doi: 10.1007/s00442-003-1452-8 Fernández E, Córdova C, Tarazona J. 1999. Condiciones de la pradera submareal de lessonia trabeculata en la isla independencia durante "El Niño 1997–98. Revista Peruana de Biologia (in Spanish), 6(3): 47–59 Filbee-Dexter K, Feehan C J, Scheibling R E. 2016. Large-scale degradation of a kelp ecosystem in an ocean warming hotspot. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 543: 141–152. doi: 10.3354/meps11554 Filbee-Dexter K, Scheibling R E. 2014. Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 495: 1–25. doi: 10.3354/meps10573 Filbee-Dexter K, Wernberg T. 2018. Rise of turfs: a new battlefront for globally declining kelp forests. BioScience, 68(2): 64–76. doi: 10.1093/biosci/bix147 Fraser C I, Spencer H G, Waters J M. 2012. Durvillaea poha sp. nov. (Fucales, Phaeophyceae): a buoyant southern bull-kelp species endemic to New Zealand. Phycologia, 51(2): 151–156. doi: 10.2216/11-47.1 Friedlander A M, Ballesteros E, Bell T W, et al. 2018. Marine biodiversity at the end of the world: cape horn and diego ramírez islands. PLoS ONE, 13(1): e0189930. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189930 Friedlander A M, Ballesteros E, Bell T W, et al. 2020. Kelp forests at the end of the earth: 45 years later. PLoS ONE, 15(3): e0229259. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229259 Gelpke N. 2017. Climate change threats and natural hazards. In: World Ocean Rev.. Hamburg: maribus gGmbH, 232 Goldberg L, Lagomasino D, Thomas N, et al. 2020. Global declines in human-driven mangrove loss. Global Change Biology, 26(10): 5844–5855. doi: 10.1111/gcb.15275 González A V, Beltrán J, Flores V, et al. 2015. Morphological convergence in the inter-holdfast coalescence process among kelp and kelp-like seaweeds (Lessonia, Macrocystis, Durvillaea). Phycologia, 54(3): 283–291. doi: 10.2216/14-105.1 González A, Beltrán J, Hiriart-Bertrand L, et al. 2012. Identification of cryptic species in the Lessonia nigrescens complex (phaeophyceae, laminariales). Journal of Phycology, 48(5): 1153–1165. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01200.x González A V, Borras-Chavez R, Beltrán J, et al. 2014. Morphological, ultrastructural, and genetic characterization of coalescence in the intertidal and shallow subtidal kelps Lessonia spicata and L. berteroana (Laminariales, Heterokontophyta). Journal of Applied Phycology, 26(2): 1107–1113. doi: 10.1007/s10811-013-0112-6 Graham M H. 2004. Effects of local deforestation on the diversity and structure of southern California giant kelp forest food webs. Ecosystems, 7(4): 341–357 Graham M H, Vásquez J A, Buschmann A H. 2007. Global ecology of the giant kelp Macrocystis: from ecotypes to ecosystems. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 45: 39–88 Gutow L, Giménez L, Boos K, et al. 2009. Rapid changes in the epifaunal community after detachment of buoyant benthic macroalgae. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 89(2): 323–328. doi: 10.1017/S0025315408002658 Haye P A, Varela A I, Thiel M. 2012. Genetic signatures of rafting dispersal in algal-dwelling brooders Limnoria spp. (Isopoda) along the SE Pacific (Chile). Marine Ecology Progress Series, 455: 111–122. doi: 10.3354/meps09673 Helmuth B, Veit R R, Holberton R. 1994. Long-distance dispersal of a subantarctic brooding bivalve (Gaimardia trapesina) by kelp-rafting. Marine Biology, 120(3): 421–426. doi: 10.1007/BF00680216 Hermosillo-Núñez B B. 2020. Contribution of echinoderms to keystone species complexes and macroscopic properties in kelp forest ecosystems (northern Chile). Hydrobiologia, 847(3): 739–756. doi: 10.1007/s10750-019-04134-8 Hernández-Carmona G, Hughes B, Graham M H. 2006. Reproductive longevity of drifting kelp Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyceae) in Monterey Bay, USA. Journal of Phycology, 42(6): 1199–1207. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00290.x Hinojosa I, González E, Ugalde P, et al. 2007. Distribución y abundancia de macroalgas flotando a la deriva y su fauna peracarida asociada en los canales de la XI región, Chile. Ciencia y Tecnología del Mar (in Spanish), 30(2): 37–50 Hinojosa I A, Pizarro M, Ramos M, et al. 2010. Spatial and temporal distribution of floating kelp in the channels and fjords of southern Chile. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 87(3): 367–377 Hinojosa I A, Rivadeneira M M, Thiel M. 2011. Temporal and spatial distribution of floating objects in coastal waters of central-southern Chile and Patagonian fjords. Continental Shelf Research, 31(3–4): 172–186 Hobday A J. 2000. Persistence and transport of fauna on drifting kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera (L. ) C. Agardh) rafts in the Southern California Bight. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 253(1): 75–96. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0981(00)00250-1 Hoffmann A, Santelices B. 1997. Marine Flora of Central Chile. Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Catolica de Chile Jaramillo E, De La Huz R, Duarte C, et al. 2006. Algal wrack deposits and macroinfaunal arthropods on sandy beaches of the Chilean coast. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 79(3): 337–351 Jeraldo L A. 2014. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional. Leonardo Arancibia Jeraldo, Departamento de Estudios, Extensión y Publicaciones, Asesoría Técnica Parlamentaria larancibia@bcn.cl equipo de trabajo Samuel Arguello Área de Economía (in Spanish), Anexo: 3197 Krumhansl K A, Okamoto D K, Rassweiler A, et al. 2016. Global patterns of kelp forest change over the past half-century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(48): 13785–13790. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1606102113 Krumhansl K A, Scheibling R E. 2012. Production and fate of kelp detritus. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 467: 281–302. doi: 10.3354/meps09940 Ladah L B, Zertuche-González J A, Hernández-Carmona G. 1999. Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera, phaeophyceae) recruitment near its southern limit in Baja California after mass disappearance during ENSO 1997–1998. Journal of Phycology, 35(6): 1106–1112. doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3561106.x Lawrence J M. 1975. On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 13: 213–286 Lleellish M, Fernández E, Hooker Y. 2001. Disturbancia del bosque submareal de Macrocystis pyrifera durante El Niño 1997–1998 en lá Bahía de Pucusana. In: Alveal K, Antezana T, eds. Sustentabilidad La Biodivers (in Spanish). Concepción: Universidad de Concepción-Chile, 331–350, 896 Macaya E C, Boltaña S, Hinojosa I A, et al. 2005. Presence of sporophylls in floating kelp rafts of Macrocystis spp. (Phaeophyceae) along the Chilean Pacific coast. Journal of Phycology, 41(5): 913–922. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00118.x Macchiavello J, Araya E, Bulboa C. 2010. Production of Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales; Phaeophyceae) in northern Chile on spore-based culture. Journal of Applied Phycology, 22(6): 691–697. doi: 10.1007/s10811-010-9508-8 Mann K H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science, 182(4116): 975–981. doi: 10.1126/science.182.4116.975 Mansilla A, Ávila M. 2011. Using Macrocystis pyrifera (L. ) C. Agardh from southern Chile as a source of applied biological compounds. Brazilian Journal of Pharmacognosy, 21(2): 262–267. doi: 10.1590/S0102-695X2011005000072 McHugh D J. 2003. A guide to the seaweed industry. Rome: FAO McPhaden M J. 1999. Genesis and evolution of the 1997–98 El Niño. Science, 283: 950–954. doi: 10.1126/science.283.5404.950 Michelou V K, Caporaso J G, Knight R, et al. 2013. The ecology of microbial communities associated with Macrocystis pyrifera. PLoS ONE, 8(6): e67480. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067480 Miranda L, Thiel M. 2008. Active and passive migration in boring isopods Limnoria spp. (Crustacea, Peracarida) from kelp holdfasts. Journal of Sea Research, 60(3): 176–183. doi: 10.1016/j.seares.2008.06.002 Mora-Soto A, Palacios M, Macaya E C, et al. 2020. A high-resolution global map of giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) forests and intertidal green algae (Ulvophyceae) with sentinel-2 imagery. Remote Sensing, 12(4): 694. doi: 10.3390/rs12040694 Moreno C A, Sutherland J P. 1982. Physical and biological processes in a Macrocystis pyrifera community near Valdivia, Chile. Oecologia, 55(1): 1–6. doi: 10.1007/BF00386710 Navarrete A H, Lagos N A, Ojeda F P. 2014. Latitudinal diversity patterns of Chilean coastal fishes: searching for causal processes. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 87(1): 2. doi: 10.1186/0717-6317-87-2 North W J. 1979. Adverse factors affecting giant kelp and associated seaweeds. Experientia, 35(4): 445–447. doi: 10.1007/BF01922696 Ojeda F P, Santelices B. 1984. Invertebrate communities in holdfasts of the kelp Macrocystis pyrifera from southern Chile. Marine Ecology-Progress Series, 16(1–2): 65–73 Olivares-Molina A, Fernández K. 2016. Comparison of different extraction techniques for obtaining extracts from brown seaweeds and their potential effects as angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Journal of Applied Phycology, 28(2): 1295–1302. doi: 10.1007/s10811-015-0665-7 Oliver E C J, Donat M G, Burrows M T, et al. 2018. Longer and more frequent marine heatwaves over the past century. Nature Communications, 9(1): 1324. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-03732-9 Ortiz M, Levins R, Campos L, et al. 2013. Identifying keystone trophic groups in benthic ecosystems: implications for fisheries management. Ecological Indicators, 25: 133–140. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.08.020 Ortiz J, Uquiche E, Robert P, et al. 2009. Functional and nutritional value of the Chilean seaweeds Codium fragile, Gracilaria chilensis and Macrocystis pyrifera. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 111(4): 320–327. doi: 10.1002/ejlt.200800140 Palacios M, Mansilla A. 2003. Desarrollo de gametofitos y esporofitos de Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. Agardh (Laminariales: Lessoniaceae) de la Región de Magallanes en condiciones de laboratorio. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia Cs Nat, 31: 43–63 Pandolfi J M, Bradbury R H, Sala E, et al. 2003. Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science, 301(5635): 955–958. doi: 10.1126/science.1085706 Pérez-Matus A, Carrasco S A, Gelcich S, et al. 2017. Exploring the effects of fishing pressure and upwelling intensity over subtidal kelp forest communities in central Chile. Ecosphere, 8(5): e01808. doi: 10.1002/ecs2.1808 Pérez-Matus A, Ferry-Graham L A, Cea A, et al. 2007. Community structure of temperate reef fishes in kelp-dominated subtidal habitats of northern Chile. Marine and Freshwater Research, 58(12): 1069–1085. doi: 10.1071/MF06200 Plana J, Mansilla A, Palacios M, et al. 2007. Population study of Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. Agardhi (Laminariales: Phaeophyta) in wave protected and exposed environments in Tierra del Fuego. Gayana, 71(1): 66–75. doi: 10.4067/s0717-65382007000100007 Quintanilla-Ahumada D, Quijón P A, Navarro J M, et al. 2018. Living on a trophic subsidy: algal quality drives an upper-shore herbivore’s consumption, preference and absorption but not growth rates. PLoS ONE, 13(4): e0196121. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196121 Ramirez M E, García-Huidobro M R, Orellana N A. 2008. Flora marina bentónica de caleta quintay. Boletín del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (in Spanish), 57: 9–19 Rebours C, Marinho-Soriano E, Zertuche-González J A, et al. 2014. Seaweeds: an opportunity for wealth and sustainable livelihood for coastal communities. Journal of Applied Phycology, 26(5): 1939–1951. doi: 10.1007/s10811-014-0304-8 Rick T C, Erlandson J M. 2008. Human Impacts on Ancient Marine Ecosystems: A Global Perspective. Oakland: University of California Press Rivadeneira M M, Thiel M, González E R, et al. 2011. An inverse latitudinal gradient of diversity of peracarid crustaceans along the Pacific Coast of South America: out of the deep south. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20(3): 437–448. doi: 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00610.x Rosenfeld S, Ojeda J, Hüne M, et al. 2014. Egg masses of the Patagonian squid Doryteuthis (Amerigo) gahi attached to giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) in the sub-Antarctic ecoregion. Polar Research, 33(1): 21636. doi: 10.3402/polar.v33.21636 Rothäusler E, Gómez I, Hinojosa I A, et al. 2009. Effect of temperature and grazing on growth and reproduction of floating Macrocystis spp. (phaeophyceae) along a latitudinal gradient. Journal of Phycology, 45(3): 547–559. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2009.00676.x Rothäusler E, Gómez I, Hinojosa I A, et al. 2011a. Kelp rafts in the Humboldt Current: Interplay of abiotic and biotic factors limit their floating persistence and dispersal potential. Limnology and Oceanography, 56(5): 1751–1763. doi: 10.4319/lo.2011.56.5.1751 Rothäusler E, Gómez I, Karsten U, et al. 2011b. Physiological acclimation of floating Macrocystis pyrifera to temperature and irradiance ensures long-term persistence at the sea surface at mid-latitudes. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 405(1–2): 33–41 Rutllant J A. 2003. Climate dynamics along the arid northern coast of Chile: the 1997–1998 Dinámica del Clima de la Región de Antofagasta (DICLIMA) experiment. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 108(D17): 4538. doi: 10.1029/2002JD003357 Santelices B, Ojeda F P. 1984. Recruitment, growth and survival of Lessonia nigrescens (Phaeophyta) at various tidal levels in exposed habitats of central Chile. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 19(1–2): 73–82 Schiel D R, Steinbeck J R, Foster M S. 2004. Ten years of induced ocean warming causes comprehensive changes in marine benthic communities. Ecology, 85(7): 1833–1839. doi: 10.1890/03-3107 Segovia N I, Vásquez J A, Faugeron S, et al. 2014. On the advantage of sharing a holdfast: effects of density and occurrence of kin aggregation in the kelp Lessonia berteroana. Marine Ecology, 36(4): 1107–1117 Shelamoff V, Layton C, Tatsumi M, et al. 2019. Ecosystem engineering by a canopy-forming kelp facilitates the recruitment of native oysters. Restoration Ecology, 27(6): 1442–1451. doi: 10.1111/rec.13019 Smale D A, Wernberg T. 2013. Extreme climatic event drives range contraction of a habitat-forming species. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1754): 20122829. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2012.2829 Spalding M D, Fox H E, Allen G R, et al. 2007. Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas. BioScience, 57(7): 573–583. doi: 10.1641/B570707 Steneck R S, Graham M H, Bourque B J, et al. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: Biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation, 29(4): 436–459. doi: 10.1017/S0376892902000322 Tala F, Edding M, Vásquez J. 2004. Aspects of the reproductive phenology of Lessonia trabeculata (Laminariales: Phaeophyceae) from three populations in northern Chile. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 38(2): 255–266. doi: 10.1080/00288330.2004.9517235 Tala F, Velásquez M, Mansilla A, et al. 2016. Latitudinal and seasonal effects on short-term acclimation of floating kelp species from the South-East Pacific. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 483: 31–41. doi: 10.1016/j.jembe.2016.06.003 Thiel M, Macaya E E, Acuña E, et al. 2007. The humboldt current system of northern and central Chile: oceanographic processes, ecological interactions and socioeconomic feedback. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 45: 195–344 Thiel M, Vásquez J A. 2000. Are kelp holdfasts islands on the ocean floor?—indication for temporarily closed aggregations of peracarid crustaceans. Hydrobiologia, 440(1–3): 45–54 Vasquez J A. 1992. Lessonia trabeculata, a subtidal bottom kelp in northern Chile: a case study for a structural and geographical comparison. In: Seeliger U, ed. Coastal Plant Communities of Latin America. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 77–89 Vásquez J A. 2008. Production, use and fate of Chilean brown seaweeds: re-sources for a sustainable fishery. Journal of Applied Phycology, 20(5): 457–467. doi: 10.1007/s10811-007-9308-y Vásquez J A. 2016. The brown seaweeds fishery in Chile. In: Mikkola H, ed. Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World. New York: IntechOpen Vásquez J A, Buschmann A H. 1997. Herbivore-kelp interactions in Chilean subtidal communities: a review. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 70: 41–52 Vásquez J A, Castilla J C, Santelices B. 1984. Distributional patterns and diets of four species of sea urchins in giant kelp forest (Macrocystis pyrifera) of Puerto Toro, Navarino Island, Chile. Marine Ecology-Progress Series, 19: 55–63. doi: 10.3354/meps019055 Vásquez J A, McPeak R H. 1998. New tool for kelp restoration. California Fish and Game, 84(4): 149–158 Vásquez J A, Piaget N, Vega J M A. 2012. The Lessonia nigrescens fishery in northern Chile: “how you harvest is more important than how much you harvest”. Journal of Applied Phycology, 24(3): 417–426. doi: 10.1007/s10811-012-9794-4 Vásquez J A, Zuñiga S, Tala F, et al. 2014. Economic valuation of kelp forests in northern Chile: values of goods and services of the ecosystem. Journal of Applied Phycology, 26(2): 1081–1088. doi: 10.1007/s10811-013-0173-6 Vega J M A, Vásquez J A, Buschmann A H. 2005. Population biology of the subtidal kelps Macrocystis integrifolia and Lessonia trabeculata (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) in an upwelling ecosystem of northern Chile: Interannual variability and El Niño 1997–1998. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 78(1): 33–50 Vergés A, Steinberg P D, Hay M E, et al. 2014. The tropicalization of temperate marine ecosystems: Climate-mediated changes in herbivory and community phase shifts. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 281(1789): 20140846. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2014.0846 Waters J M. 2008. Driven by the West Wind Drift? A synthesis of southern temperate marine biogeography, with new directions for dispersalism. Journal of Biogeography, 35(3): 417–427. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01724.x Waycott M, Duarte C M, Carruthers T J B, et al. 2009. Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(30): 12377–12381. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0905620106 Wernberg T. 2005. Holdfast aggregation in relation to morphology, age, attachment and drag for the kelp Ecklonia radiata. Aquatic Botany, 82(3): 168–180. doi: 10.1016/j.aquabot.2005.04.003 Wernberg T, Bennett S, Babcock R C, et al. 2016. Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem. Science, 353(6295): 169–172. doi: 10.1126/science.aad8745 Wernberg T, Filbee-Dexter K. 2019. Missing the marine forest for the trees. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 612: 209–215. doi: 10.3354/meps12867 Wernberg T, Smale D A, Tuya F, et al. 2013. An extreme climatic event alters marine ecosystem structure in a global biodiversity hotspot. Nature Climate Change, 3(1): 78–82. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1627 Westermeier R, Patiño D, Piel M I, et al. 2006. A new approach to kelp mariculture in Chile: production of free-floating sporophyte seedlings from gametophyte cultures of Lessonia trabeculata and Macrocystis pyrifera. Aquaculture Research, 37(2): 164–171. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2109.2005.01414.x Wichmann C S, Hinojosa I A, Thiel M. 2012. Floating kelps in Patagonian Fjords: an important vehicle for rafting invertebrates and its relevance for biogeography. Marine Biology, 159(9): 2035–2049. doi: 10.1007/s00227-012-1990-x Winkler N S, Pérez-Matus A, Villena Á A, et al. 2017. Seasonal variation in epifaunal communities associated with giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) at an upwelling-dominated site. Austral Ecology, 42(2): 132–144. doi: 10.1111/aec.12407 Zuniga-Jara S, Soria-Barreto K. 2018. Prospects for the commercial cultivation of macroalgae in northern Chile: the case of Chondracanthus chamissoi and Lessonia trabeculata. Journal of Applied Phycology, 30(2): 1135–1147. doi: 10.1007/s10811-017-1298-9