Diagenetic evolution and reservoir quality of the Oligocene sandstones in the Baiyun Sag, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
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Abstract: The Oligocene Zhuhai sandstones are significant reservoirs for hydrocarbons in the Baiyun Sag, South China Sea. For effective appraisal, exploration and exploitation of such a deep-water hydrocarbon sandstone, samples of five wells from depths of 850 m to 3000 m were studied. A series of comprehensive petrographic and geochemical analyses were performed to unravel the diagenetic features and their impact on the reservoir quality. Petrographically, the sandstones are dominated by feldspathic litharenites and lithic arenites with fine to medium grain sizes and moderate to good sorting. The reservoir quality varies greatly with a range of porosity from 0.2% to 36.1% and permeability from 0.016 ×10–3 μm2 to 4301 ×10–3 μm2, which is attributed to complex diagenetic evolution related to sedimentary facies; these include compaction, cementation of calcite, dolomite, siderite and framboidal pyrite in eogenetic stage; further compaction, feldspar dissolution, precipitation of ferrocalcite and ankerite, quartz cements, formation of kaolinite and its illitization, precipitation of albite and nodular pyrite, as well as hydrocarbon charge in mesogenetic stage. The dissolution of feldspar and illitization of kaolinite provide internal sources for the precipitation of quartz cement, while carbonate cements are derived from external sources related to interbedded mudstones and deep fluid. Compaction is the predominant factor in reducing the total porosity, followed by carbonate cementation that leads to strong heterogeneity. Feldspar dissolution and concomitant quartz and clay cementation barely changes the porosity but significantly reduces the permeability. The high-quality reservoirs can be concluded as medium-grained sandstones lying in the central parts of thick underwater distributary channel sandbodies (>2 m) with a high content of detrital quartz but low cement.
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Key words:
- Baiyun Sag /
- Oligocene /
- Zhuhai Formation /
- diagenesis /
- reservoir quality
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Figure 1. Locality map of tectonic zones of the Pearl River Mouth Basin, SCS (modified from Lei et al., 2018) (a). Map of well locations referred to in the article in the southeastern Baiyun Sag (b).
Figure 2. Cenozoic-Quaternary tectonic, stratigraphic and sedimentary evolution of the Baiyun Sag (modified from Lei et al., 2018).
Figure 3. Core photos showing the lithofacies characteristics of the Zhuhai sandstones. a. LW1-1, 2 037.5 m, grey medium-grained sandstones with massive bedding; b. LW1-1, 2 027.25 m, grey fine-grained sandstones with parallel bedding; c. LW1-1, 2 563.5 m, grey-black mudstones and siltstones with horizontal bedding. The black arrow shows the upward direction of the formation.
Figure 4. Reservoir lithologic characteristics of the Zhuhai sandstone. a. Classification of sandstone; b. Lithology distribution; c. Sorting distribution.
Figure 5. Photomicrographs of diagenetic minerals. a. LW1-1, 2 027.25 m, poikilotopic, locky calcite filled most primary pores. b. LW1-2, 2 563.5 m, calcite was replaced by ferrocalcite. c. LW1-1, 2 037.5 m, dolomite filled intergranular primary pores, dolomite zoned and engulfed by ankerite. d. LW1-2, 2 563.5 m, feldspar secondary pores and partly filled by some ankerite, quartz overgrowths were replaced by ankerite. e. LW1-1, 2 037.5 m, dolomite was engulfed by ankerite. f. LW3-1, 1 861.5 m, siderite grains precipitated around the detrital grains. g. LW1-1, 1 707.5 m, feldspar secondary pores and partly filled by kaolinite, h. LW4-1, 1 519.8 m, micropores in authigenic kaolinite. i. LW1-2, 2 429.5 m, extensive feldspar dissolution partly filled by kaolinite with no dissolution of detrital carbonate grains. Cc = calcite; Do = dolomite; Q = quartz grain; Fc = ferroan calcite; An = ankerite; FD = feldspar dissolution pore; K = kaolinite; Qa = quartz overgrowths; Sid = siderite.
Figure 6. The variation of the content of diagenetic products with the distance to sandstone–mudstone contact.
Figure 7. SEM images of diagenetic minerals. a. LW1-1, 1 714.25 m, quartz overgrowths and prismatic quartz crystals. b. LW1-1, 2 563.5 m, two phases of quartz overgrowths. c. LW3-1, 1 861.5 m, feldspar secondary pores and IS. d. LW4-1, 1 559.8 m, kaolinite and ankerite in sandstones. e. LW3-1, 1 861.5 m, authigenic kaolinite in primary pores. f. LW1-2, 2 509.5 m, transition of kaolinite to illite. g. LW1-1, 1 655 m, spherical aggregates of micron-sized pyrite crystals. h. LW1-1, 2 563.5 m, irregular pore-filling pyrites in sandstones. i. LW1-2, 2 509.5 m, kaolinite and ankerite in sandstones. FG = feldspar grain, I = illite, Qa1 and Qa2 = two phases of quartz overgrowths, Qc = quartz crystals, Py = pyrite, Al = albite.
Figure 8. Vertical distribution characteristics of clay cements. I/S = illite/smectite mixed layer; S: smectite.
Figure 9. Vertical distribution of porosity (a), permeability (b), total thin section porosity (c), and feldspar dissolution porosity (d).
Figure 10. Photomicrographs illustrating fluid inclusions in the Zhuhai sandstones. a. LW1-1, 1 663.54 m, fluid inclusions along healed microfractures in quartz grain, b. LW1-1, 2 045 m, fluid inclusions in quartz overgrowths.
Figure 12. Crossplot of Carbon and Oxygen isotopic compositions of carbonate cements. Cc = calcite; Do = dolomite; Fc = ferroan calcite; An = ankerite.
Figure 14. Relationship between the porosity and particle size of different sedimentary micro-facies.
Figure 15. Relationships between depth, composition of detrital grains and IGV in the Zhuhai sandstones.
Figure 16. Plot of IGV versus volume of cement in the Zhuhai sandstones (modified from Lundegard, 1992).
Figure 17. Relationships between carbonate contents (%) and the distance to sandstone-mudstone contact (a). Relationships between porosity (%) and the distance to sandstone-mudstone contact (b).
Figure 18. The vertical distribution of the content of diagenetic products (a–c), effective secondary porosity (D1, d) and increment of porosity (D2, e).
Table 1. The homogenization temperature (Th) of fluid inclusions. Qa1 and Qa2 = two phases of quartz overgrowths; MF = microfractures; An = ankerite
Well Depth/ m Inclusion
locationSize/μm Th/℃ Well Depth/m Inclusion
locationSize/μm Th/℃ LW1-1 1663.54 Qa1 5.2 83.2 LW1-1 2045.0 MF 5.5 127.0 LW1-1 1663.54 Qa1 6.2 77.5 LW1-1 2045.0 MF 4.8 130.4 LW1-1 1663.54 Qa1 7.0 95.3 LW1-2 2609.1 Qa1 7.5 107.9 LW1-1 1663.54 MF 6.7 95.7 LW1-2 2609.1 MF 4.0 126.5 LW1-1 1663.54 MF 8.0 97.9 LW1-2 2609.1 MF 3.8 137.3 LW1-1 1663.54 MF 4.5 104.7 LW1-2 2609.1 MF 3.0 145.2 LW1-1 1663.54 MF 5.7 106.8 LW1-2 2702.5 Qa2 3.6 125.0 LW1-1 1708.25 Qa1 4.7 84.5 LW1-2 2702.5 Qa2 6.0 117.3 LW1-1 1708.25 Qa1 8.5 90.4 LW1-2 2702.5 MF 5.5 141.0 LW1-1 1708.25 MF 8 94.3 LW1-2 2702.5 MF 4.7 146.0 LW1-1 1708.25 MF 3.5 97.5 LW1-2 2702.5 MF 8.8 129.0 LW1-1 1708.25 MF 7.0 106.7 Lw3-1 1861.5 MF 4.8 112.3 LW1-1 1708.25 MF 7.5 114.8 Lw3-1 1861.5 MF 3.3 113.8 LW1-1 1708.25 MF 5.0 111.3 Lw3-1 1861.5 MF 9.5 117.1 LW1-1 1708.25 MF 5.5 108.2 Lw3-1 1861.5 MF 5.9 115.3 LW1-1 2 045.0 Qa1 5.9 89.5 Lw3-1 1861.5 MF 7.1 120.1 LW1-1 2 045.0 Qa2 5.4 104.5 Lw3-1 1861.5 MF 6.2 124.6 LW1-1 2045.0 Qa2 7.0 110.4 LW1-2 2702.5 An 5.5 113.7 LW1-1 2045.0 MF 3.3 119.3 LW1-2 2702.5 An 8.0 124.3 LW1-1 2045.0 MF 7.1 124.2 
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Table 2. Isotopic composition and precipitation temperature of carbonate cements. Cc = calcite; Do = dolomite; Fc = ferroan calcite; An = ankerite
Well Depth/m Carbonte $ \text{δ}$13CVPDB/‰ $ \text{δ} $18OVPDB/‰ Precipitation temperature/℃ $ \text{δ} $18OSMOW=−5
/‰$ \text{δ} $18OSMOW=−2
/‰$ \text{δ} $18OSMOW=0
/‰LW4-1 1 519.8 Cc 0.97 −8.62 31 − − LW4-1 1 559.8 Cc 1.58 −9.92 38 − − LW1-1 1 657.64 Cc 2.51 −9.73 37 − − LW1-1 1 657.64 Cc 1.43 −10.44 41 − − LW1-1 1 708.25 Cc 0.11 −9.59 36 − − LW1-1 2 027.25 Cc −0.30 −8.28 29 − − LW1-2 2 609.1 Cc 1.23 −11.27 45 − − LW4-1 1 514.8 Do 1.56 −8.75 61 − − LW1-1 1 671.5 Do 0.12 −10.31 72 − − LW1-1 1 713.5 Do 0.35 −9.49 66 − − LW1-1 2 026.5 Do −0.76 −8.49 59 − − LW1-1 2 037.5 Do 2.12 −11.24 80 − − LW1-1 2 037.5 Do 1.44 −10.76 76 − − LW1-2 2 577.0 Do 1.54 −9.67 68 − − LW1-2 2 577.0 Do 0.73 −10.31 72 − − LW3-1 1 861.5 Fc −7.48 −13.67 60 79 94 LW1-1 2 026.5 Fc −11.96 −15.43 71 92 108 LW1-1 2 563.5 Fc −24.42 −16.63 79 101 118 LW1-1 2 563.5 Fc −13.87 −15.74 73 94 110 LW1-2 2 609.1 Fc −10.72 −14.20 63 83 98 LW1-2 2 824.8 Fc −4.19 −13.92 61 81 95 LW4-1 1 559.8 An −7.53 −14.58 88 114 137 LW1-1 1 658.0 An −7.72 −14.13 85 110 132 LW1-1 2 026.5 An −4.48 −12.06 71 92 109 LW1-1 2 033.39 An −2.47 −15.27 94 121 142 LW1-1 2 045.0 An −1.02 −17.22 111 142 167 LW1-2 2 563.5 An −3.36 −13.55 81 105 123 LW1-2 2 701.5 An −2.65 −15.46 96 123 136 LW1-2 2 702.5 An −7.25 −14.26 86 111 131 LW2-1 2 997.5 An −6.51 −18.05 119 152 179 Note: “−” indicates no data.
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